gourds from Egypt and Greece; plates from Babylon, wine from Italy, beer from Media,

household vessels from Sidon, baskets from Egypt, dresses from India, sandals from

Laodicea, shirts from Cilicia, veils from Arabia --such were some of the goods imported.

On the other hand, the exports from Palestine consisted of such produce as wheat, oil,

balsam, honey, figs, etc., the value of exports and imports being nearly equal, and the

balance, if any, in favour of Palestine.

Then, as to the laws regulating trade and commerce, they were so minute as almost to

remind us of the Saviour's strictures on Pharisaic punctiliousness. Several Mishnic

tractates are full of determinations on these points. "The dust of the balances" is a

strictly Jewish idea and phrase. So far did the law interfere, as to order that a wholesale

dealer must cleanse the measures he used once every month, and a retail dealer twice a

week; that all weights were to be washed once a week, and the balances wiped every

time they had been used. By way of making assurance doubly sure, the seller had to

give rather more than an ounce in addition to every ten pounds, if the article consisted

of fluids, or half that if of solids (Baba B. v. 10, 11). Here are some of the principal

ordinances relating to trade. A bargain was not considered closed until both parties had

taken possession of their respective properties. But after one of them had received the

money, it was deemed dishonourable and sinful for the other to draw back. In case of

overcharge, or a larger than the lawful profit, a purchaser had the right o f returning the

article, or claiming the balance in money, provided he applied for it after an interval not

longer than was needful for showing the goods to another merchant or to a relative.

Similarly, the seller was also protected. Money-changers were allowed to charge a fixed

discount for light money, or to return it within a certain period, if below the weight at

which they had taken it. A merchant might not be pressed to name the lowest price,

unless the questioner seriously intended to purchase; nor might he be even reminded of

a former overcharge to induce him to lower his prices. Goods of different qualities might

not be mixed, even though the articles added were of superior value. For the protection

of the public, agriculturists were forbidden to sell in Palestine wine diluted with water,

unless in places where such was the known usage. Indeed, one of the Rabbis went so

far as to blame merchants who gave little presents to children by way of attracting the

custom of their parents. It is difficult to imagine what they would have said to the

modern practice of giving discount to servants. All agreed in reprobating as deceit

every attempt to give a better appearance to an article exposed for sale. Purchases of

corn could not be concluded till the general market-price had been fixed.

But beyond all this, every kind of speculation was regarded as akin to usury. With the

delicacy characteristic of Rabbinical law, creditors were expressly prohibited from using

anything belonging to a debtor without paying for it, from sending him on an errand, or

even accepting a present from one who had solicited an advance. So punctilious were

the Rabbis in avoiding the appearance of usury, that a woman who borrowed a loaf from

her neighbour was told to fix its value at the time, lest a sudden rise in flour should make

the loaf returned worth more than that borrowed! If a house or a field were rented, a

somewhat higher charge might be made, if the money were not paid in advance, but not

in the case of a purchase. It was regarded as an improper kind of speculation to promise

a merchant one-half of the profit on the sales he effected, or to advance him money and

then allow him one-half of the profits on his transactions. In either case, it was thought,

a merchant would be exposed to more temptation. By law he was only entitled to a

commission and to compensation for his time and trouble.

Equally strict were the regulations affecting debtor and creditor. Advances were legally

secured by regular documents, drawn out at the expense of the debtor, and attested by

witnesses, about whose signature minute directions are given. To prevent mistakes, the

sum lent was marked at the top, as well as in the body of the document. A person was

not taken as security for another after the loan was actually contracted. In reference to

interest (which among the Romans was calculated monthly), in regard to pledges, and in

dealing with insolvent debtors, the mildness of the Jewish law has never been equalled.

It was lawful, under certain restrictions, to take a pledge, and in the event of non-