of their notices, the strong party-bias which coloured almost all their statements regarding
opponents, and their constant tendency to trace later views and practices to earlier times.
11. Comp. Book I. ch. viii.
12. I use the term metaphysical here in the sense of all that is above the natural, not
merely the speculative, but the supersensuous generally.
13. The word αιρεσις has received its present meaning chiefly from the adjective
attaching to it in 2 Pet. ii. 1. In Acts xxiv. 5, 14, xxviii. 22, it is vituperatively applied to
Christians; in 1 Cor. xi. 19, Gal. v. 20, it seems to apply to diverging practices of a sinful
kind; in Titus iii. 10, t he 'heretic' seems one who held or taught diverging opinions or
practices. Besides, it occurs in the N.T. once to mark the Sadducees, and twice the
Pharisees (Acts v. 17; xv. 5, and xxvi. 5).
14. I mean on historical, not theological grounds.
15. I here refer to the following passages: Jewish War ii. 8. 14; Ant. xiii. 5. 9; 10. 5, 6;
xvii. 2. 4; xviii. 1, 2, 3, 4.
16. For a full discussion of the character and writings of Josephus, I would refer to the
article in Dr. Smith's Dict. of Chr. Biogr. vol. iii.
Without entering on the principles and supposed practices of 'the fraternity' or
'association' (Chebher, Chabhurah, Chabhurta) of Pharisees, which was comparatively
small, numbering only about 6,000 members,17 the following particulars may be of
interest. The object of the association was twofold: to observe in the strictest manner, and
according to traditional law, all the ordinances concerning Levitical purity, and to be
extremely punctilious in all connected with religious dues (tithes and all other d ues). A
person might undertake only the second, without the first of these obligations. In that case
he was simply a Neeman, an 'accredited one' with whom one might enter freely into
commerce, as he was supposed to have paid all dues. But a person could no t undertake
the vow of Levitical purity without also taking the obligation of all religious dues. If he
undertook both vows he was a Chabher, or associate. Here there were four degrees,
marking an ascending scale of Levitical purity, or separation from all that was profane.18
In opposition to these was the Am ha-arets, or 'country people' (the people which knew
not, or cared not for the Law, and were regarded as 'cursed'). But it must not be thought
that every Chabher was either a learned Scribe, or that every Scribe was a Chabher. On
the contrary, as a man might be a Chabher without being either a Scribe or an elder,19 so
there must have been sages, and even teachers, who did not belong to the association,
since special rules are laid down for the reception of such. 20 Candidates had to be
formally admitted into the 'fraternity' in the presence of three members. But every
accredited public 'teacher' was, unless anything was known to the contrary, supposed to
have taken upon him the obligations referred to.21 The family of a Chabher belonged, as
a matter of course, to the community; 22 but this ordinance was afterwards altered.23 The
Neeman undertook these four obligations: to tithe what he ate, what he sold, and what he
bought, and not to be a guest with an Am ha-arets.24 The full Chabher undertook not to
sell to an 'Am ha-arets' any fluid or dry substance (nutriment or fruit), not to buy from
him any such fluid, not to be a guest with him, not to entertain him as a guest in his own